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Chapter 3 – Developing the Hypothesis

Chapter Outline

Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

Making Our Hypotheses Logical

The “I Wonder What Will Happen if” Hypothesis and Inductive Reasoning

The “I Expect This Would Happen if” Hypothesis and Deductive Reasoning

Strong Inference

Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement

Overview

Ideas Come From Everywhere

Intuition and Revelation

The Scientist’s Guide to Having an Idea

Tools for Library Research

Journals & Books

Computer Databases

The Internet

Conclusion

Chapter Overview

Science attempts to determine the extent to which our ideas about the world are accurate. To this end, operational definitions guide the scientist in testing hypotheses, though there may be multiple definitions of the construct under study. There are two types of hypotheses and each has a different underlying logic. Strong inference is an important procedure for examining hypotheses. In addition, testing hypotheses requires reliable and valid measurement.

An experiment’s origin is often the scientist’s idea that is translated into a testable hypothesis and includes identification of independent and dependent variables and their operational definitions. Ideas for experiments come from a variety of sources as described in the research accounts of Jude Cassidy (infant-child attachment), Lance Shotland (bystander behavior), Nora Newcombe (gender differences), and Jeffrey Parker (children’s friendship). Wallas’ four-stage model of creative problem-solving illustrates different aspects of the process of idea-generation.

There are many tools for library research and include books, journals, and computer databases (e.g., PsycINFO, PubMed, MEDLINE, SCI). Information from professional organizations, governmental agencies, colleges and universities can be accessed via the internet.

Chapter Objectives

1. Why do scientists consider their topics from ever changing perspectives?

2. Testing our hypothesis about reality requires operational definitions. How does Chapter 3 define operational definitions and how are they applied when bonding our hypothesis to physical reality?

3. How is construct validity important to our research procedures and measurements?

4. Logically, what are the two fundamentally different types of hypotheses and what types of reasoning do they represent?

5. Specify the steps involved in inductive and deductive reasoning. Give examples of their use. What are the limitations of these logical processes?

6. Our goal in research is to use measurements that are both valid and reliable. Discuss the relationship between reliability and validity. How would you select methods of measurement that meet this goal?

7. Describe the steps of the research process in terms of the decisions you are required to make at each step.

8. Discuss several ways to find ideas for research. Relate this to your own system of searching for ideas.

9. Wallas (1920) described the scientific process in four stages. Explain each in detail and formulate examples.

10. What is the importance of library research in the scientific process?

11. What tools are available in helping you to locate scientific information? Describe their different functions and the benefits of these methods of information gathering.

12. Explain the concept of strong inference. Describe the four steps outlined by Platt (1964) and how this idea relates to psychology.

Teaching Points

Creating operational definitions will challenge many students. The difficulty is likely due to how “slippery” some concepts are and that many constructs like anxiety and depression can be tested only indirectly. Another area of difficulty that students will encounter is taking general hypotheses and translating them to more specific testable hypotheses. Consider giving students practice in constructing operational definitions and testable hypotheses regarding love, fear, motivation, effort, and concentration. Students should note that several alternative definitions for each construct exist.

Since inductive and deductive reasoning can be difficult for some students, emphasize how they underlie the types of hypotheses. Specifically, emphasizing Figure 3.2 might be a highly effective way to help students grasp the logic.

Your students might be interested in knowing that there are actually several types of validity (e.g., convergent, discriminant, predictive, concurrent, face). These validity types are especially important in the area of psychometrics.

Ask your students to comment on the reliability and validity of the tests that they take in their coursework. Challenge them to offer support of their views.

Share your own experiences with how you developed hypotheses. Talk about colleagues you know and how they came up with their hypotheses.

It might be instructive if you brought to class several journals for students to examine. Students would see the types of research conducted, the format in which articles are written, and the breadth of research.

Students often enjoy hearing about their professor’s own research and experiences. Depending on your specific case, you may wish to describe your experiences with using bound abstracts. How has computerized databases improved your own research?

Teaching Activities

What Interests You?

To introduce this chapter, ask students to create a list of questions regarding behavior and mental processes. You can augment this activity by having students use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed in their areas of interest. Additionally, students could construct an experiment to address their question. Have students create a general hypothesis, identify the variables, operationally define them, and translate the general hypotheses into a testable hypothesis.

Research Tools

Using Handout 3-1, students are to collect citations from the tools listed that relate to their area of interest. Ask them to report back to the class their findings.

Operational Definitions in TV Commercials

To give practice to students and to hone their critical viewing skills, record some TV commercials and present them to your students. Their task is to operationally define some of the more common phrases used in commercials. For examples, persuasive phrases and buzzwords are good examples of constructs for students to operationally define:

tastes good
best value
quality service
consumers’ favorite
most watched
new and improved
most durable
fastest
world’s leading
world famous

Analyzing Hypotheses

Ask each student to first formulate a hypothesis. Students can then analyze their hypotheses, or those formulated by other students, by identifying the independent variable(s) and dependent variables(s). They should also indicate if the hypothesis is directional and whether or not the variables have been adequately operationally defined.

Computer Databases

Consider showing students an actual search on a database. Possibilities include finding citations of your own research or that of a colleague using Social Science Citation Index.

Evaluating Internet Sources

Without doubt, the Internet has changed how information is disseminated both in the popular culture and in science. But accompanying the change are concerns for uncritical acceptance of Internet content. There are a number of web sites that provide guidelines and exercises regarding the evaluation of internet sources:

http://www.montgomerycollege.edu/Departments/writegt/htmlhandouts/Ten%20C%20internet%20sources.htm

http://muse.widener.edu/~tltr/How_to_Evaluate_9.htm

http://www.fno.org/jun97/eval.html

Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop

http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch_wrk.html

A section of the Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop site discusses Getting Ideas for a Study. The section discusses the importance of observation and talking to experts, as well as the utility of attending various types of research conventions (plus a list of some major conferences). This is followed by a review of how to search, and gather ideas from, the literature. As with each segment of the workshop site, this segment concludes with a brief quiz (consisting of true/false statements and multiple-choice questions).

Internet Resources

What is Science? (http://www.thebee.se/SCIENCE/Science.htm)

At this website, you’ll find a brief description of the history and “theory” of science detailing the contributions of the Greeks and Kuhn.

Science Quotes (www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/sciquote.htm)

This website presents some thought- provoking quotes from noted scientists and theorists that reveal their perspectives on the definition, pleasure, and beauty of science.

Pseudoscience (physics.syr.edu/courses/modules/PSEUDO/pseudo_main.html)

Links to sites on alternative medicine, pseudomedicine, quackery, therapeutic touch, facilitated communication, and skepticism offer a rich source of various pseudosciences.

Writing Hypotheses (http://www.accessexcellence.org/LC/TL/filson/writhypo.html)

The purpose of this lesson is to teach students how and when to write hypotheses.

Cronbach and Meehl (psychclassics.yorku.ca/Cronbach/construct.htm)

You can read Cronbach and Meehl’s classic paper on construct validity at this site.

Construct Validity (www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/constval.htm)

You will find more information regarding the different types of validity (e.g., face, concurrent, criterion-referenced).

7. Biographies of Scientists.

Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find a biography on a noted scientist in psychology (e.g., Wilhelm Wundt, B. F. Skinner, Sigmund Freud, Kurt Lewin, Leon Festinger, Fritz Heider, etc.).

How does their life story interface with their contribution to psychology?

Handout 3-1

Research Project

Research Question:

Tool

Book title:

Journal:

Psychological Abstracts:

Sources from PsycINFO:

Internet Source:

Other:

TEST BANK

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. The chapter advises that researchers, in order to gain new perspectives, should:

a.	practice formulating testable hypotheses.
b.	ask subjects about their experiences in research.
c.	create thoughtful operational definitions.
d.	play with their thoughts.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Introduction

2. How do scientists accurately communicate their private ideas about the world?

a.	use operational definitions
b.	ask their colleagues for assistance in writing research articles
c.	engage in Wallas’ four-stage model of creative problem-solving
d.	use inductive and deductive reasoning

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

MSC: WWW

3. Operational definitions:

a.	define concepts in terms of clearly observable, concrete operations that anyone can repeat.
b.	define terms conceptually.
c.	define events in terms of constructs.
d.	all of these

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

4. An advantage of using operational definitions is that:

a.	they allow sampling to be done randomly.
b.	they allow what Wallas described as inductive reasoning to occur.
c.	these definitions associate hypotheses to objects and operations in the physical world.
d.	they allow confounding variables to exist.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

5. Professor Cole is discussing aggression as a dependent variable in his experiment. He says that aggression is the amount of time that a child holds a toy weapon. This best illustrates a(n):

a.	operational definition of playing with a toy weapon.
b.	confounding variable.
c.	operational definition of aggression.
d.	nominal level of measurement.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

6. For any construct, there is (are):

a.	only one operational definition.
b.	many possible operational definitions.
c.	one operational definition that is valid and one that is reliable.
d.	only one true operational definition.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

7. Which of the following could not be an operational definition of intelligence?

a.	Score on an IQ test
b.	Number of rare words read per minute
c.	GPA
d.	How smart you are on several tests

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

8. Which of these is not an operational definition of anxiety?

a.	Heart rate
b.	Degree of nervousness on a math test
c.	Participants’ ratings of their own anxiety on a 1 to 5 scale
d.	Scientist’s rating of participants’ anxiety on a 1 to 5 scale

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

MSC: WWW

9. Why would a researcher want to use multiple measures of depression?

a.	It would increase the chance that the research would get financial support.
b.	Using multiple measures would increase test-retest reliability.
c.	Because there are several operational definitions of depression.
d.	It makes sense because she is studying people from different backgrounds.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

10. What is wrong with the following operational definition of concentration: time taken to run a mile?

a.	It is not reliable.
b.	It cannot be replicated.
c.	It lacks construct validity.
d.	It is too precise.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

11. To make a hypothesis testable, you must:

a.	operationally define your variables.
b.	formulate a broad general question.
c.	rely on inductive reasoning.
d.	use valid constructs.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

12. If an operational definition has construct validity:

a.	it is consistent with the hypotheses.
b.	it adequately represents a concept.
c.	it relies on inductive reasoning.
d.	it will be uncorrelated with other variables.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

13. Questioning whether the time spent on a manipulation task is a valid measure of conscientiousness refers to the problem of ____ validity.

a.	predictive
b.	construct
c.	internal
d.	external

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

14. Hypotheses of the form “I expect this would happen if” are formulated when:

a.	we know a lot about a phenomenon.
b.	we know little about a phenomenon.
c.	we reason inductively.
d.	we know a lot about a phenomenon and we reason inductively.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

MSC: WWW

15. Imagine that a child drops a ball from her highchair and sees it fall to the ground. Later, as she sits in her bed, she holds a toy and she expects that, if she drops the toy outside of her bed, that it will fall to the floor. In fact, she believes that this type of effect will occur whenever she drops an object. This best illustrates:

a.	deductive reasoning.
b.	inductive reasoning.
c.	theory-driven research.
d.	hypothetical reasoning.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

16. Hypotheses of the form “I wonder what will happen if” are formulated when:

a.	we know a lot about a phenomenon.
b.	we know little about a phenomenon.
c.	we reason inductively.
d.	we know a lot about a phenomenon and we reason inductively.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

17. Hypotheses of the form “I expect this would happen if” are associated with:

a.	deductive reasoning.
b.	inductive reasoning.
c.	theory-driven research.
d.	deductive reasoning and theory-driven research.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

18. A scientist has outlined a theory of attention. She formulates a hypothesis and designs an experiment to test the theory. This type of experiment is associated with:

a.	deductive reasoning.
b.	inductive reasoning.
c.	theory-driven research.
d.	deductive reasoning and theory-driven research.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

MSC: WWW

19. Hypotheses of the form “I wonder what will happen if” are associated with:

a.	deductive reasoning.
b.	inductive reasoning.
c.	theory-driven research.
d.	deductive reasoning and theory-driven research.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

20. One predicts observations from a well-established theory through a process of:

a.	induction.
b.	incubation.
c.	deduction.
d.	validation.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

21. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a testable research hypothesis?

a.	It is stated in terms of operational definitions.
b.	It states how the independent variable is manipulated.
c.	It specifies the relation between the independent and dependent variables.
d.	It reflects both inductive and deductive reasoning.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

22. The research approach that tests two competing theories in order to falsify one of them is referred to as:

a.	induction.
b.	illumination.
c.	strong inference.
d.	verification.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

23. If a measure is reliable, it:

a.	accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.
b.	is consistent.
c.	is valid.
d.	is both consistent and valid.

ANS: B PTS: 1

REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement

MSC: WWW

24. A psychologist thinks that he has come up with a new and improved intelligence test. He gives the test to some subjects several times and finds that there is a lot of fluctuation in how well a person scores. The fluctuation seems indicate that the new test lacks:

a.	measurement.
b.	validity.
c.	integrity.
d.	precision.

ANS: B PTS: 1

REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement

25. If a measure is accurate, it is said to be:

a.	consistent.
b.	valid.
c.	precise.
d.	reliable.

ANS: B PTS: 1

REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement

26. A measure can be:

a.	accurate but not valid.
b.	reliable but not valid.
c.	consistent but not reliable.
d.	valid but not accurate.

ANS: B PTS: 1

REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement

27. The clock on the classroom wall is exactly one hour off. You would conclude that the clock is:

a.	not reliable and not valid.
b.	reliable but not valid.
c.	not reliable but valid.
d.	reliable and valid.

ANS: B PTS: 1

REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement

28. As the a researcher sets up an hypothesis, it often takes the form of a(n):

a.	quote.
b.	greater than less than statement.
c.	if then statement.
d.	theory.

ANS: C PTS: 1

REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement

29. Professor James uses a system that requires a subject to press a button as soon as they see a light blink. He is measuring their reaction time. Unfortunately, his equipment is not working properly and every reaction time recorded randomly fluctuates by plus or minus 10%. You would conclude that the readings obtained with the equipment are:

a.	not reliable and not valid.
b.	reliable but not valid.
c.	not reliable but valid.
d.	reliable and valid.

ANS: A PTS: 1

REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement

MSC: WWW

30. Which of the following is the best formulated hypothesis?

a.	A psychologist wonders if caffeine affects attention.
b.	Does caffeine affect attention?
c.	If caffeine is ingested, attention will be enhanced.
d.	Caffeine and attention: a relationship?

ANS: C PTS: 1

REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement

31. What do the stories of Jude Cassidy, Lance Shotland, Nora Newcombe, and Jeffrey Parker say about science?

a.	Construct validity is difficult to achieve.
b.	Wallas’ stage of scientific process does not always conform to reality.
c.	It is difficult to formulate testable hypotheses.
d.	Ideas for research can come from a variety of sources.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Ideas Come From Everywhere

32. You hear one of your classmates say, “Scientists can’t use their own experiences in the scientific method. They have to be objective!” What is your reasoned reaction to this statement?

a.	The classmate is wrong since scientists often use their own experiences to create hypotheses.
b.	The classmate is wrong since science never attempts to be objective.
c.	The classmate is correct since personal experiences are always subjective.
d.	The classmate is right. One’s own experiences are always seen from a particular point of view.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Ideas Come From Everywhere

33. Scientists get their research ideas from:

a.	reading the work of others.
b.	talking about their ideas with colleagues.
c.	prior experience.
d.	all of these

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Ideas Come From Everywhere

MSC: WWW

34. The famous scientist, ____, often experienced ideas that just popped into his consciousness.

a.	Albert Einstein
b.	Graham Wallas
c.	Karl Popper
d.	Thomas Kuhn

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Intuition and Revelation

35. Wallas found that one of the things that scientists do to solve problems is to learn all they can about a problem and to examine it from varied perspectives. This stage of scientific problem-solving is called:

a.	preparation.
b.	incubation.
c.	illumination.
d.	verification.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: The Scientist’s Guide to Having an Idea

36. You’ve recently become interested in dreaming and have read many articles about it. In which of the following stages are you most likely to be in?

a.	illumination
b.	induction
c.	incubation
d.	preparation

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: The Scientist’s Guide to Having an Idea

37. Which of the following is not one of Wallas’ four stages of scientific problem solving?

a.	illumination
b.	induction
c.	incubation
d.	verification

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: The Scientist’s Guide to Having an Idea

38. Which of the following statements is false according to Wallas’ four-stage theory of scientific problem-solving?

a.	Ideas may pop into your mind even though you have never thought about the problem before.
b.	Ideas may come to you suddenly as if from nowhere.
c.	Insights are usually preceded by extensive study of a topic.
d.	Ideas may not take years to develop.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: The Scientist’s Guide to Having an Idea

MSC: WWW

39. According to Wallas, the solution to a problem begins to come into consciousness during:

a.	preparation.
b.	illumination.
c.	incubation.
d.	verification.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: The Scientist’s Guide to Having an Idea

40. The stage in Wallas’ four-stage model that is associated with testing of the hypothesis is called:

a.	incubation.
b.	induction.
c.	verification.
d.	revelation.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: The Scientist’s Guide to Having an Idea

41. Professor Barrios is currently testing a hypothesis regarding psychotherapy. He is in Wallas’ stage of:

a.	verification.
b.	incubation.
c.	induction.
d.	validation.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: The Scientist’s Guide to Having an Idea

MSC: WWW

42. If you wanted to find relevant research of the past five years on the effects of nicotine on motor performance, which of the following would be the best source?

a.	Index Medicus
b.	Journal of Developmental Psychology
c.	PsycINFO
d.	the website of Harvard’s Department of Psychology

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Tools for Library Research

43. When searching in PsycINFO, it is best to use search terms that are:

a.	general
b.	popular
c.	specific
d.	none of these

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Tools for Library Research

TOP: Tools for Library Research

44. Information about psychological research may be found in:

a.	Psychological Abstracts.
b.	World Wide Web.
c.	PsycINFO
d.	all of these

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Tools for Library Research

TOP: Tools for Library Research

45. A researcher is interested in flashbulb memory research. If using PsycINFO, it might be useful to use the following search term:

a.	memory.
b.	flashbulb.
c.	types of memory.
d.	flashbulb memory.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Tools for Library Research

MSC: WWW

SHORT ANSWER

1. How and why does the scientist convert private ideas into specific behaviors?

ANS:

Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

2. Describe the rationale of having multiple measures of the dependent variable.

ANS:

Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

3. Discuss the relation between operational definitions and construct validity.

ANS:

Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

4. Discuss the relation between different kinds of hypotheses and inductive and deductive reasoning.

ANS:

Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

5. Discuss why research described as “theory driven” is based on deductive reasoning.

ANS:

Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

6. Describe the importance of reliability and validity in measurement.

ANS:

Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement

7. Outline the steps that should be taken to translate a general research question into a testable research hypothesis.

ANS:

Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Overview

8. Operationally define the independent and dependent variables in the following hypothesis and restate it in testable form: Practice makes perfect.

ANS:

Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

9. What do the stories of the researcher described in the chapter tell us about the source of ideas in science?

ANS:

Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Ideas Come From Everywhere

10. Describe the four stages of Wallas’ model of scientific problem-solving.

ANS:

Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: The Scientist’s Guide to Having an Idea

11. Describe the tools that a scientist has to conduct library research.

ANS:

Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Tools for Library Research

12. How have electronic resources, such as databases and the Internet, changed how scientists conduct research?

ANS:

Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Tools for Library Research

Chapter 5 – Description of Behavior Through Numerical Representation

Chapter Outline

Measurement

Scales of Measurement

Nominal Measurement

Ordinal Measurement

Interval Measurement

Ratio Measurement

Identifying Scales of Measurement

Measurement and Statistics

Pictorial Description of Frequency Information

Descriptive Statistics

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Variability

Pictorial Presentations of Numerical Data

Transforming Data

Standard Scores

Measure of Association

Chapter Overview

Behavior is described through measurement that exists at four basic levels or scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. Statistics are used to help us make sense of data. A frequency distribution provides a pictorial representation of frequency information from an experiment. Distributions of scores may take several shapes, such as a bimodal distribution or skewed distribution. Mean, median, and mode are commonly used measures of central tendency. The choice of which one to use depends on the distribution. Variability can be measured by range and standard deviation. Numerical data can be represented in line and bar graphs.

Data can be transformed from one scale to another and to meet statistical assumptions. Standard scores such as z scores allow comparison of scores to other scores. Association between variables can be depicted in a scatter diagram and with correlation coefficients, which may be positive or negative. Correlation does not show causal relationships between variables, but does have value in prediction.

Chapter Objectives

1. Measurement theory requires us to ask what two questions when doing research?

2. Compare and contrast the different scales of measurement.

3. Cite two ways to display data.

4. What three measures of central tendency are discussed in the text and what are their characteristics?

5. Discuss the concept of variability. Give examples of three different measures of variability and describe their functions.

6. Why is it common to transform data? Relate transformation of data to the concept of z-scores.

7. What is correlation? How does it aid us in understanding the relationship between variables?

8. How would you define a positive correlation? How would you define a negative correlation?

9. What can you say about the effect of one variable on the other in correlational studies?

10. What information is derived from squaring the correlation coefficient? How does this relate to variability accounted for?

11. Why is it important to assess underlying distribution before calculating correlations?

Teaching Points

There are several helpful points to make regarding scales of measurement. First, each subsequent scale builds upon the previous scale. Second, to make reasonable conclusions, one must be sensitive to the use of statistics for a particular scale. Third, use the acronym NOIR, the French word for black, as a cue for the scales of measurement.

The chapter makes the excellent point that “statistics do not know and do not care where your numbers come from.” For instance, you could calculate a mean from nominal level data, but the result would be meaningless. Students might recognize this as an example of “garbage in garbage out.”

Students often do not possess good graphing skills and have difficulty remembering what variables go on which axes. It would be helpful to give them practice at graphing by using one or more of the activities described below.

Remind students that a “0” in a dataset counts in determining the number of scores in calculating the mean.

Many students think too much about the mean (and central tendency in general) and not enough about variability. It is useful to demonstrate both mathematically and graphically that two or more data sets can have identical means but be very different in terms of how dispersed the values are in each set.

Another area of challenge for students is how and why skewed distributions affect the choice of a measure of central tendency, in addition to difficulty with conceptually understanding standardized scores like z-scores.

Students may also get hung up on the words positive and negative. Emphasize that positive correlation does not refer to a good correlation nor does negative correlation refer to a bad correlation.

Teaching Activities

Using Students as Subjects

This chapter lends itself well to collecting and analyzing and creating distributions of data gotten from your students. Here are some ideas:

construct frequency distributions for height, weight, shoe size, and gender
calculate measures of central tendency and standard deviation for height and shoe size
transform the scores of height in z-scores
construct a scatter diagram with height and shoe size
calculate correlation coefficient between height and shoe size
calculate correlation coefficient between shoe size and number of siblings

Dissect a Graph

Supply students with a set of graphs and ask them to label and critique every part. It may be best to use a variety of graphs and to even include errors. Include graphs with error bars because students often have trouble interpreting what these indicators of variability mean.

Tables and Graphs in the Popular Media

Locate tables and graphs used in the popular media and bring them into class. Let students examine them and formulate conclusions. Next compare the conclusions generated by the students to the conclusions that accompanied the table or graph. Augment this activity with examples of poorly constructed tables and graphs that are available from the web site described below.

Measures of Central Tendency in the Popular Media

As the textbook suggests, we hear about these measures often in the popular media. Bring in examples of articles and ads that refer to a measure. Suggest that without other information, it is difficult to know if the appropriate measure was used.

Wadsworth’s Statistics Workshop

http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/stats_wrk.html

The Wadsworth’s Statistics Workshop site contains links to several sections relevant to students after reading the chapter. For example, Scale of Measurement discusses the four levels of measurement of variables in psychological research, their abstract number properties, and the types of statistics that are permitted for each variable. The tutorial ends with a summary and students can test their knowledge in identifying scales of measurement by doing the practice exercises. Another workshop entitled Central Tendency and Variability provides information on how to summarize various kinds of data. Students are led through an example that exercises their skill in calculating measures of central tendency and variability. The workshop segment z Scores elaborates on the value of the z score and provides a step-by-step process of calculating z. Finally, the section on Correlation describes the types of correlations (positive, negative, and zero) and introduces the formula for the Pearson’s correlation coefficient.As with each segment of the workshop site, this segment concludes with a brief quiz.

Internet Resources

Measurement theory (ftp://ftp.sas.com/pub/neural/measurement.faq)

This site provides additional information on measurement theory, scales of measurement, and transformations.

The Best and Worst of Statistical Graphics (www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gallery/)

This site has some interesting examples of poorly conceptualized and created attempts at representing data visually.

More resources on statistics (http://www.statsoft.com/textbook/)

Elementary statistical concepts are explained concisely and effectively. Of particular interest is the statistical glossary.

Datasets (lib.stat.cmu.edu/datasets) (http://www.umass.edu/statdata/)

If you need real data to illustrate statistical concepts, these sites have many datasets from a variety of disciplines. The second site groups the datasets by what statistics would be appropriate to analyze the data.

Statistics links (www.mccombs.utexas.edu/faculty/jonathan.koehler/links/statistics.asp)

This site contains many links to interesting articles and activities related to statistics. Some of the topics addressed by the sites include games, gambling, sports, correlation, and comprehensive statistics sites.

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Test Banks 1

Methods Toward a Science of Behavior and Experience 10th Edition by William J. Ray – Test Bank

Sample Test

Chapter Outline

Chapter Overview

Chapter Objectives

Teaching Points

Teaching Activities

What Interests You?

Research Tools

Operational Definitions in TV Commercials

Computer Databases

Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop

7. Biographies of Scientists.

Handout 3-1

Chapter Outline

Chapter Overview

Teaching Points

Teaching Activities

Using Students as Subjects

Tables and Graphs in the Popular Media

Measures of Central Tendency in the Popular Media

Internet Resources

The Best and Worst of Statistical Graphics (www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gallery/)

More resources on statistics (http://www.statsoft.com/textbook/)

Elementary statistical concepts are explained concisely and effectively. Of particular interest is the statistical glossary.

If you need real data to illustrate statistical concepts, these sites have many datasets from a variety of disciplines. The second site groups the datasets by what statistics would be appropriate to analyze the data.

Statistics links (www.mccombs.utexas.edu/faculty/jonathan.koehler/links/statistics.asp)

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